Europeans and the Australian Environment

Upon the Europeans arrival in Australia, many were surprised by the environmental landscape. In explorer Thomas Livingstone Mitchell’s piece, he outlines the land as 'wild', with few resources available. Mitchell also notes the importance of the partnership between nature and Australia's native inhabitants. As a result, in order for the territory to be occupied by British settlers, it was Mitchell's opinion that the Aboriginal population must be driven out of Australia.

Furthermore, as previously mentioned, Australia’s environment was quite inhospitable and very few of the settlers had farming experience. Nature was also suffering as a result of the new inhabitants. Therefore, as John Hirst writes, the pioneer legend was created as a need to find ‘new national heroes and symbols’, ones that saved and successfully worked with the barren landscape of Australia. This legend celebrates perseverance and hard work, and individuals such as Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson encompass the ‘Australian pioneer legend’, as courageous and resourceful bush-men. The pioneer legend greatly influenced the base of what was written about Australian history. Moreover, many were desperate to erase the ‘convict stain’ of Australia’s history and as a result, the pioneer legend was created.  Hirst contends that the pioneer legend history meant that historians could feasibly omit the convict origins in the Australia's history.
   
In addition, as Tom Stannage writes, including the pioneer legend as part of Australian history justifies the invasion of land that took place. Stannage believes that the term pioneer should be replaced with ‘land-taker’. Furthermore, this history fails to include women, convicts and Aborigines in its story. The Pioneer legend conveniently leaves out the fact that hundreds of Aborigines were enslaved, shot and killed by these so called ‘pioneer legends’. In addition, in reality, not only were British settlers causing unprecedented destruction to the Australian environment, but nature and native animals were also affected. Wild rabbits were imported in 1859 and as a result destroyed the land. Native animals such as kangaroos and emus were hunted as a part of a sporting pastime. 

The pioneer legend was created in order to establish a simple, local myth that falsely glorifies Australia's origins. European settlers were ill-equipped to handle Australia's environment and were instead destroying the environment and killing its native animals. 

Overlooking Australia's landscape, Dunlop range in 1886

Source: 'Pioneer photographer shows birth of Australia' by Penny McLintock

<http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/07/09/2298872.htm> 

Frontier or History Wars?

The nature of the settlement of the British in the 18^th century is widely debated amongst historians. A lack of historical evidence makes it extremely difficult to completely understand the nature and extent of Aboriginal resistance to European settlement. In addition, as there are limited recounts and reports from eye witnesses available on this topic, historians are left to rely on oral histories and testimonies from individuals who experienced these events first hand. These recounts can often be inaccurate, distorted or incomplete. Similarly, most histories are often recounted by British settlers and as a result, their accounts can be biased and tend to give a broad, falsely positive overview of settlement in Australia and the subsequent treatment of Aborigines.

Frontier violence causes intense debate between historians because incorrect recounts of frontier history may leave important aspects of Australian’s past unknown and undiscovered. For example, the Aboriginal population is an important part of Australia's history and this needs to be acknowledged appropriately and accordingly. As Europeans believed that occupying the land automatically assumed ownership, they arrived in Australia, in what they believed was a ‘peaceful and respectful’ manner. However, as later land rights court verdicts and national reconciliation decisions have otherwise stated, the British chose to occupy and dispossess land that already rightfully belonged to previous Aboriginal inhabitants. In addition, a  large number of Aboriginals were killed in order to gain land. Furthermore, as Bain Attwood writes, racial discrimination and violence that destroyed many Aboriginal communities subsequently occurred. He also states that many facts are often left out of Australian settlement history as preference towards a less 'problematic' settlement history.

Australia's identity lies with our history. It is vital to the inhabitants of this country that incorrect viewpoints on European settlement are eradicated and the reputation of Aborigines is restored, as well as their rightful place in Australia's history. 

 

Aborigines hunting and gathering 

Source: 'Australia's Convict Past' by Robert Coupe 

New Holland Publishers, Australia Pty Ltd (2002). 

Convict Lives

Many historians hold differing opinions about the convict origin of Australia. It is extremely difficult to make generalisations about convicts, as all of the information is based on the personal data collated about the convicts. Nevertheless, many historians have established their opinions of the individuals that populated Australia in the 18th century.

Our 'unusual colonial origins', as Deborah Oxley explains, causes many individuals to choose to deny our convict past. However, although the relationship between our origins and the convicts was negatively viewed for many years, this changed in the 20th century, when George Arnold Wood famously argued that the convicts were in fact, 'victims, more sinned against than sinning'. Wood believed that the convicts were outcasts, who were 'good people who lived in difficult times'. He stated that crime was inevitable in Britain at the time, as the criminal condition of society was created by '...the criminal lords and Bishops'. Other historians agree, believing that convicts were in fact, victims of injustice.

In contrast, Manning Clark contends that the convicts that settled in Australia were of a 'professional criminal class'. Approximately between a quarter and a third of the convicts were 2nd offenders and for this reason, Clark argues that these individuals were from the same 'criminal' class of society. He goes on to describe the convicts as lazy and non-industrious individuals who were proud of their criminal records and saw Australia as their 'sole chance at redemption'.

Convicts - First Australian Settlers 

by Augustus Earle

Source: Brisbane Times
<http:// images.brisbanetimes.com.au/ 2009/08/03/662060>

Primary source data from the indents of the Pyramus and the Hougoumont vessels demonstrate that many of the female convicts had committed minor crimes, such as theft. As many of the women convicted were domestic servants or wives, this serves as a reason to why the crimes committed are relatively minor. Conversely, the males convicted had committed major crimes such as murder and rape, which deserved harsher punishments. Nevertheless, it was vital that a proportion of female convicts were to be brought to Australia to ensure that there would not be a gender imbalance. Although they attempted to provide for a balance between sexes, by 1834, the ratio was one female to seven males. It is also important to note that many of the convicts were in fact, workers and convicts were drawn almost entirely from the working class. Data also shows that there was a high rate of literacy among convicts. This suggests that many of them were urban dwellers, rather than rural inhabitants, which explains their lack of farming skills and inability to tend the land as first expected.  

Although various opinions exist about Australia's convict origins, over the years the viewpoint of our convict heritage has shifted from a solely negative standpoint to one where many Australians view their past in a preferred, more positive light. 

Australia and the Enlightenment

Gascoigne describes the Enlightenment as 'the quest of principles; the appeal to reason, the language of rights, and a growing insistence on toleration...'.  Clark further explains that the emergence of the Enlightenment occurred as the influence of Christianity and religion in general began to decay. As a result, the existence of everything was no longer attributed to mythical or magical reasoning or cosmic meaning. Buchan also believes that as the Enlightenment provided a new outlook on life, which led to 'a commitment to progress, the development of science and technology, individual liberty and a secular foundation for ethics' throughout the world. The Enlightenment sparked a myriad of historical events, including the American, French and Industrial Revolutions. As Australia was also founded during this period, the ideas and goals for a conduct of life were largely shaped by this new world-view of the Enlightenment. In addition, Gascoigne believes that 'the Enlightenment was to 'form a central core of the mental world of what eventually became the Australian nation'. In addition, Clark adds that it was infact, 'Men of Science - Sons of the Enlightenment' who conquered the Australian continent, as many had failed before them. The Enlightenment view meant that several believed that progress and improvement would naturally develop in the new found land of Australia. There was also a 'fundamental connection between property and politics' in European Enlightenment thought. Moreover, European settlers believed that in order to recognise an individual's private property, a set of laws must be established in order to differentiate their land from other individual's land. Consequently, Indigenous Australians were taken advantage of, as they did not provide these laws for their land. 

In 1642, Justus Schouten, of the Dutch East India Company, provided instructions to Abel Tasman upon his visit to the 'unknown and known Southland'. He was expecting many 'excellent, rich and fertile regions', as well as  'rich mines of precious and other metals'. He instructed Tasman to 'take possession of uninhabited regions, and in populated regions - one must obtain consent of the people firstly before possessing the land...this should be done through 'friendly persuasion' and through small gifts of gratitude and commemoration'. His requests were an attempt to manipulate the Indigenous inhabitants to the European's advantage. 

In contrast, in 1768, in the midst of the Age of Enlightenment, President of Royal Society, Lord Morton provided 'hints' to Captain James Cook. He outlined that 'no European nation has the right to occupy any part of their country, or settle among them without their voluntary consent'. He also stated it important 'not to use forceful methods to convince the inhabitants of co-settling..[however] should natives be slain in the process, it must be explained that it was merely done in self defence'. His 'hints' recommend the opening of trade and commerce, in order to 'advance European civilisation'. As Buchan describes, this was in turn, an idea which is closely aligned with the Enlightenment ideas of civilisation. Furthermore, Enlightenment philosophy saw the Europeans treat the natives in a different manner, as instructed, they '...should be treated 'with distinguished humanity' and made known that they are still considered as 'Lords of the Country'. This is in vast difference to Justus Schouten's advice to Tasman in regards to the native inhabitants of the land.

In addition, upon arrival at New Holland, Captain James Cook describes the natives of the land as 'straight bodied and slender limb'd'. He notes that they 'all go naked, including the women...they are a 'timorous and inoffensive race',  with no 'ways inclinable to cruelty'. Cook also sees that they live as one with nature, without the need for possessions. Cook describes the inhabitants of New Holland in an informative, yet paternalistic tone, describing the natives as individuals with a different way of life. The age of Enlightenment allowed Cook to reject the once common, 'native savage' stereotype.

 

Captain Cook meeting the inhabitants of New Holland upon arrival. 

(as drawn by an unknown artist of Captain Cook's Crew)

Source: 'The Aborigines' by George Weber

http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter52/text52.htm

Outpost of Empire

Many historians have differing views on the founding of Australia. In Lord Sydney's address to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, he explicitly stated the growing problems of overcrowding of jails and places to confine the felons of England. In order to ease the problem, Lord Sydney ordered the transport of convicts to New South Wales, where a colony would be established. He also mentioned the advantages of transporting the convicts, one being the flax that would be available for successful trade and commerce opportunities.

In contrast, in Geoffrey Blainey's book, The Tyranny of Distance, he argues that the colonisation of Australia was influenced solely by the material advantages available from the new land. Blainey argues that Britain's choice to relocate and house their overflowing number of convicts in Australia was a costly and slow process. Furthermore, Blainey believes that if the problem was as urgent as firstly mentioned, Britain would have chosen a quicker, cheaper and more effective option to solve its problems. For example, Blainey suggests that convicts could have been sent to colonies such as Canada or the West Indies, and this would have been a cheaper and quicker solution to the problem of overcrowding. However, as Fox disputes, Blainey's geographical argument overstates the 'importance of distance', as Australia is in fact, geographically, a substantial distance  from everything. In addition, as flax was also of better quality and more readily available in other locations, as Blainey argued that the so-called acquisition of these natural supplies could not substantiate the colonisation of Australia.

As Simon J. Potter contends, many historians have competing arguments about the foundations of Australia as there is little evidence that clearly states the intentions and reasons of the British to establish a colony in Australia. However, Potter disagrees with Blainey and writes that British jails were, in fact, overcrowded and transporting convicts to a new colony was a cheaper alternative. By using the convicts for labour, the British believed that they were able to temporarily solve their overcrowding criminal problem, establish a new colony and also obtain natural resources in the process. Unfortunately their expectations of the new colony were quite optimistic, only to find a land that was unlike the past visit, which was Botany Bay at its best. Nevertheless, Britain was successful and Australia continually became influential in an range of economic, cultural, social and political ways.

 

'The Founding of Australia' 

First Fleet arriving in Port Jackson

By Algernon Talmage R.A.

Source: 'From Penal Colony to Land of Plenty: 1786-1850' by Nicolas Brasch 

Heinemann Library, Australia (2007).